The declining quality of air, water and soil severely harms human health as well as biodiversity. On the other hand, ecosystems and biodiversity help maintain and improve air, water and soil quality, thereby enhancing human health. Pollution causes heart and pulmonary disease, diabetes, mental and neurological conditions, and other ailments. In 2015 pollution caused an estimated 9 million premature deaths worldwide – three times more than AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria combined, and 15 times more than war and aggression. It causes 1 in 8 deaths annually in the EU. Pollution – in particular nutrient loading of nitrogen and phosphorus from agriculture and transport - is also one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss and the ongoing extinction of species.

Overarching EU policies on pollution and waste

The EU's Zero Pollution Action Plan (2021) is based on the following vision for 2050:
Air, water and soil pollution is reduced to levels no longer considered harmful to health and natural ecosystems and that respect the boundaries our planet can cope with, thus creating a toxic-free environment.
Its targets for 2030 include a reduction by 55% of health impacts (premature deaths) of air pollution; by 30% of the share of population chronically disturbed by transport noise; by 25% of the EU ecosystems where air pollution threatens biodiversity; by 50% of nutrient losses, use and risk of chemical pesticides, use of the more hazardous ones, and the sale of antimicrobials for farmed animals and in aquaculture; by 50% of plastic litter at sea and by 30% microplastic release into the environment; by 50% of residual municipal waste and significantly total waste generation. The zero-pollution hierarchy emphasises the precautionary principle, preventive action, rectification of environmental damage at source, and the 'polluter pays' principle. It includes a 'flagship' to reduce the EU's external pollution footprint. 

The Sustainable Use of Pesticides Directive (2009) aimed at reducing risks to human health and the environment via alternative approaches like Integrated Pest Management and non-chemical alternatives. It is currently being revised and its provisions enhanced in line with the later (2020) EU Biodiversity (BDS 2030) and Farm to Fork (F2F) Strategies. Chemical manufacturing is the EU's fourth largest industry. The EU Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability (2020) recognises the negative impacts of hazardous chemicals on human health and the environment, as well as the need for the existing EU chemicals policy to evolve and respond more effectively to challenges posed by hazardous chemicals. To this end the EC has launched (2022) a public consultation to revise the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals or REACH (2007) regulation and align it with EC ambition on protecting health and the environment.

Air quality

Air pollution harms both human health and ecosystems. It is now the single largest risk to human health in Europe, annually causing about 400,000 premature human deaths (over ten times more than road traffic accidents) and about 6.5 million cases of respiratory and cardiovascular disease. Particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide are the main pollutants of concern for human health. Pollution also impacts both vegetation and wildlife, threatening almost two-thirds of Europe's ecosystems. Excess nitrogen deposition is a major cause of species loss, ecosystem dysfunction and eutrophication. Conversely, ecosystems benefit air quality in many ways: for instance via removal of air pollution and meteorological regulation.

The Clean Air Policy Package for Europe was adopted in December 2013 based on an extensive review of EU air policy to date. Its Clean Air Programme aimed to achieve full compliance with existing air quality standards across the EU as soon as possible, and set objectives for 2020 and 2030. It rests on three main pillars aimed at preventing or reducing harmful effects on human health and the environment as a whole. The first pillar comprises the ambient air quality standards set out in the Ambient Air Quality Directive for ground-level ozone, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, dangerous heavy metals and a number of other pollutants. Member States (MS) are required to adopt air quality plans to adhere to these standards. The second pillar consists of national emission reduction targets established in the National Emissions Ceiling Directive for the most important trans-boundary air pollutants: sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, ammonia, volatile organic compounds and fine particulate matter. The third pillar comprises emissions standards for key sources of pollution, from vehicle and ship emissions to energy and industry.

Water

Water is a precondition for life and health, and plays a fundamental role in climate regulation. Ecosystems facilitate the water cycle by regulating nutrient cycling and soil erosion, and managing pollution. Species loss hinders ecosystem services such as pollutant filtration and nutrient uptake. Many protected areas were established to protect human water supply. But human activity is now threatening freshwater ecosystems, resulting in water quality decline. The main anthropogenic drivers are increased freshwater consumption for agriculture, mining, energy generation, industry and households. Nutrient discharge into water bodies leads to eutrophication, widely recognised as a major threat to both human health and ecosystems. Excess nitrogen (in agricultural runoff, etc.) and phosphorus (in detergents, etc.) are the main culprits, with multiple impacts including cyanotoxin outbreaks in humans and animals, and oxygen depletion of ecosystems. Apart from direct health impacts (such as water-related illness), degradation caused by human activity affects access to sanitation and water resources, and the capacity for food production. Maintaining or restoring ecosystems is a cost-effective and sustainable way to improve water quality while also benefitting biodiversity.

Europe's water resources are under pressure due to increasing demand. The Water Framework Directive (WFD) adopted in 2000 is the most comprehensive instrument of EU water policy. It applies an integrated river basin approach to managing fresh, coastal and transitional waters while respecting the integrity of whole wetland, aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems that are key to safeguarding water resources. Its main objective was to achieve 'good status' (ecological and chemical) for all EU waters by 2015, in tandem with a number of other directives on specific aspects. But later reports show that the WFD's objectives have not been achieved. In 2019 only 40% and 38% of EU surface water bodies had good ecological and chemical status respectively. With respect to groundwater, 74% and 89% of groundwater area had good chemical and quantitative status respectively. The Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive aimed at protecting the environment from adverse effects of waste-water discharge. Its forthcoming review will consider permanent monitoring of health-relevant factors in wastewater with a view to improve preparedness for new epidemic threats. The Nitrates Directive (2008) aimed at mitigating water pollution caused by nitrates from agricultural sources in order to protect human health and aquatic ecosystems, and to safeguard other legitimate uses of water. The Priority Substances Directive (2013) aimed at preventive action and rectification at source of the adverse effects of surface water pollution: impacts on the aquatic environment such as acute and chronic toxicity in aquatic organisms, accumulation of pollutants in ecosystems and loss of habitats and biodiversity, as well as the threat to human health. As from January 2023, the revised Drinking Water Directive will provide higher human health protection via more stringent quality standards. Furthermore, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008) noted the mounting pressure on the EU's natural marine resources and called for an ecosystem-based approach to managing these resources to phase out pollution and reduce risks to marine biodiversity and ecosystems, human health and legitimate uses of the sea.

Soil

Soil is an essential ecosystem containing more than 25% of all living organisms on the planet. It provides food, biomass and fibres, and regulates water, carbon and nutrient cycles, making life possible. Soil pollution is rampant in the EU: about 2.8 million sites are potentially contaminated, of which 390,000 are expected to require remediation. About 65,500 sites had been remediated by 2018.

The new EU soil strategy for 2030 replaces the former EU Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection (2006), aiming to achieve healthy soils by 2050, with concrete objectives for 2030. Its key actions include sustainable soil management, boosting the circular economy by enhancing land reuse and reaching no net land take by 2050, restoring degraded soils and remediating contaminated sites, preventing desertification, increasing research (data and monitoring), and mitigating and adapting to climate change. A new Soil Health Law will be announced by 2023 to ensure a level playing field and a high level of environmental and health protection. The BDS 2030 and F2F strategies (see here) also cover many aspects of soil health, such as nutrient pollution and erosion control.

Waste

Total annual EU waste generation amounts to 2.5 billion tonnes, or 5 tonnes per capita a year. Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) continues to be one of the EU's fastest growing waste streams. Discarded devices contain hazardous materials that can cause major environmental and health problems if not managed properly.

The Waste Framework Directive (2008) aimed at protecting the environment and human health by preventing or reducing waste generation and its adverse impacts, and improving resource use efficiency. The RoHS and WEEE Directives (2011-12) specifically WEEE. But despite EU efforts the amount of waste generated has not decreased. The EU's First Circular Economy Action Plan (2015) was completed by 2019. Though recycling of municipal waste increased in that period, recycled materials still meet less than 12% of EU demand for materials.

The new Circular Economy Action Plan (2020) proposes a revision of EU legislation on batteries, packaging, end-of-life vehicles, and hazardous substances in electronic equipment with a view to preventing waste, increasing recycled content, promoting safer and cleaner waste streams, and ensuring high-quality recycling. In addition the EC will put forward waste reduction targets for specific streams as part of stronger measures on waste prevention and a review of the Waste Framework Directive. However, less than 40% of electronic waste is recycled in the EU. Its informal recycling in developing countries exposes people to numerous harmful substances such as lead and mercury, with a major impact on children. The EC will support initiatives via the Basel Convention to better monitor international trade for these waste-streams and improve their management, as well as explore a global initiative to end informal recycling of used lead acid batteries.