Mitigation and adaptation strategies in climate-smart agriculture: A review for sustainable production

Climate change affects global farming, particularly smallholder farmers who are already struggling with challenges such as poor yields, water shortages, and limited access to technology. However, agriculture is the source of approximately 25–30 % of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, making sustainable agriculture solutions essential. To address this, climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is often promoted as a means of achieving sustainable development. This review paper used PRISMA methodology to examine the potential of CSA to contribute to both emission reduction (mitigation) and farming systems resilience (adaptation) by analyzing 368 peer-reviewed articles published between 2012 and 2025. Results stated that four CSA pathways, soil carbon sequestration, precision fertilization, methane-reducing livestock feed, and agroforestry, were found to consistently achieve emission reductions of 20–40 %, soil carbon increments of 0.3–0.8 t C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, and productivity improvements of 10–25 %. On the adaptation side, climate-resilience crop varieties, smart irrigation, cover cropping, and mixed farming systems emerged as scalable solutions that simultaneously enhance productivity and ecosystem stability. Regional analysis revealed that developed countries (e.g., the United States, Germany) emphasize technology-driven precision agriculture and carbon management, while developing regions (e.g., Kenya, Ethiopia, India) focus on agroforestry, rainwater harvesting, and low-input resilience practices. The results provide excellent guidance for researchers, policy makers, and development agencies focused on developing climate-resilience food systems.