Defining dairy

The dairy food group includes raw milk intended for human consumption, which is produced by the secretion of the mammary gland of animals (generally ruminant mammals). In addition, it includes dairy/milk products that result from processing milk (or from further processing of such processed products; EC 2004 (pdf)) including: various types of heat-processed milk, condensed milk, evaporated milk, dehydrated milk, reconstituted milk, milk powder, yoghurt and other fermented milks, cheese, dairy fat spreads, butter, and cream.

Dairy is a term that refers to names, designations, symbols, pictorial or other devices that refer to or are suggestive of milk or milk products ( FAO/WHO 1999a (pdf)). Dairy products are usually communicated in Food Based Dietary Guidelines (FBDGs) as the whole food group including milk and most milk-derived products, such as milk yoghurt and cheese ( EC webpage).

Though butter and fat spreads are technically dairy products, they are usually not included in the “dairy group” of the FBDGs of the various EU Member States (MS), even if they have derived from milk fat, as they are not nutritionally equivalent to other dairy products  (( EC webpage).

Milk, (as well as many dairy products) can be classified according to its fat content: e.g., whole milk, skimmed milk, semi-skimmed milk, low-fat milk and standardised milk. It can also be classified according to the processing procedures it has undergone, such as pasteurisation, sterilisation, fermentation, extended shelf-life (ESL), and ultra-high-temperature treatment (UHT) ( FAO 2013 (pdf)).

Examples of the varied definitions of milk and of several dairy products are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Examples of dairy definitions

Nutritional value of dairy

Depending on the definition used, dairy products include a variety of products such as milk, yoghurt, cheese, cream, and butter. Those products that are typically included in the dairy group of many FBDGs (excluding butter and fat spreads) contain protein with high bioavailability (i.e., high quality and high digestibility, containing all essential amino acids), calcium, vitamin B12, vitamin B2 (riboflavin), and iodine ( NNR 2023). Dairy products (mostly milks and yoghurts, and some cheeses) can be fortified with vitamin D ( NNR 2023), in accordance with Regulation (EC) No 1925/2006 ( EC 2006). In some European countries, vitamin D fortification is voluntary, but in others, it is mandatory and specific for some dairy products ( SACN 2024).  

Dairy products are also major contributors to saturated fat, salt, and sugars intake in the EU, though levels vary by category. The EU Framework for National Initiatives on Selected Nutrients (pdf) identifies dairy, especially cheese and cream, as a priority for saturated fat reduction, noting that intake should be kept as low as possible within a nutritionally adequate diet ( ANNEX I: saturated fat (pdf) ). The ANNEX II on added sugars (pdf) sets benchmarks for reduction while warning that reformulation should not increase saturated fat, trans fat, salt, or calories.

Examples of the nutritional value of different dairy products, per 100g of product, are provided in Table 2. Variations in the nutritional value (e.g. fat content) are common and the result differences in processing methods and, in some cases, the addition of vitamins and minerals through fortification ( HSPH 2020, HSPH 2019). 

Table 2: Nutritional value of milk and dairy products

Labelling of dairy in the EU

Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council, establishing a common organization of the markets in agricultural products, provides that the term “milk” is used exclusively when it comes from the normal mammary secretion obtained from one or more milkings, “without either addition thereto or extraction therefrom”, and defines “milk products” as products derived exclusively from milk ( EU 2013 (pdf)). “However the term “milk” may be used: a) for milk treated without altering its composition or for milk the fat content of which is standardised (…); b) in association with a word or words to designate the type, grade, origin and/or intended use of such milk or to describe the physical treatment or the modification in composition to which it has been subjected, provided that the modification is restricted to an addition and/or withdrawal of natural milk constituents”  ( EU 2013 (pdf)).  

The European Court of Justice ruling of July 2017 has upheld the exclusive use of ‘milk’ designations to animal-sourced milk products (CJEU 2017). Furthermore, the animal species from which the milk originates must be stated if not bovine  ( EU 2013 (pdf)).  

In the case of “raw milk” intended for direct human consumption, the labelling must clearly show the words “raw milk”, and in the case of products made with raw milk but whose processing does not include any heat, physical or chemical treatment, the labelling must state “made with raw milk" EC 2004 (pdf).

According to Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011 ( EU 2011 (pdf)) on the provision of food information to consumers, mandatory information to be stated on pack includes, among others, the name of the product, the list of ingredients, any ingredient or processing aid causing allergies or intolerances, the net quantity of the food, and a nutrition declaration. However, dairy products such as cheese, butter, fermented milk and cream are exempted from having a list of ingredients if no ingredient has been added other than lactic products, food enzymes and microorganism cultures essential to manufacture  ( EU 2011 (pdf)), or in the case of cheese other than fresh cheese and processed cheese, the salt needed for its manufacture.

Some dairy products, such as cheese, can bear quality schemes regarding geographical indications on the label, which is regulated at EU level ( EU 2012 (pdf)). These include Protected Designations of Origins (PDO) and Protected Geographical Indications (PGI). For example, in the EU geographical indications register – eAmbrosia (EC 2023) – there are 261 cheeses registered to bear a PDO/PGI quality scheme. 

In Annex II of Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011  ( EU 2011 (pdf)), milk and products thereof (including lactose) are listed among the 14 substances or products causing allergies or intolerances that must be declared on food labels when present in foods. Lactose is not an allergen but may cause intolerance due to decreased ability to digest lactose and can cause abdominal and intestinal discomfort. Therefore, the “lactose-free” statement does not imply the absence of milk allergens ( FSAI).

Regarding health claims related to dairy products, the only one allowed in the EU refers to live yoghurt cultures and improved lactose digestion for individuals with difficulties digesting lactose ( EU Register - Health Claims). “In order to bear the claim, Yoghurt or fermented milk should contain at least 10⁸ Colony Forming Units of living starter microorganisms (Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophillus) per gram.” ( EU Register - Health Claims).

Dairy intake: effects on health

The associations between milk and dairy products consumption and health are described in Table 3. 

Table 3: Health effects related to dairy intake

Recommended intake of dairy

There is a wide variety of dietary recommendations throughout Europe ( EC webpage) and the rest of the world, likely due to the inclusion of different products into the “dairy group” and the different local traditions, availability and cultural acceptance of such products. Differences in recommendations across countries can also be due to specific local needs (i.e., specific nutritional challenges for across population groups, such as reducing saturated fat or the need for attaining the recommended level of calcium. For example, in Hungary, dairy products are grouped under “meat/fish/eggs/milk and dairy products”, and in the Netherlands they fall under the “protein-rich products” group, unlike in most national FBDGs where it is a food group on its own. Some countries, like Sweden and the UK, recommend specifically fortified products (with vitamin D). Countries like Iceland include butter in the dairy group and recommend limiting its consumption similarly to high-fat cheeses, while most countries exclude butter explicitly from this group ( EC webpage). Overall, in Europe, around 2-3 servings a day are recommended on average (a higher proportion of consumption should come from milk and yoghurt and a lower from cheese), with an emphasis on low-sugar, low-fat and low-salt dairy options ( EC webpage). 

Examples of dietary recommendations for dairy intake can be found in Table 4, and more details on FBDGs across the EU can be found in the EC Knowledge Gateway page on Food-Based Dietary Guidelines recommendations for milk and dairy products ( EC webpage). 

Table 4: Dietary recommendations for dairy intake

Intake of dairy across European countries

Dairy consumption in the EU differs according to the different dairy products. In Tables 5a, 5b and 5c the dairy consumption in the EU is presented separately for milk, fermented milk/yoghurt, and cheese, respectively. Data was extracted from EFSA’s Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database ( EFSA 2022), and is presented by age groups and by gender, for each available EU country ( EFSA 2011 (pdf) EFSA 2014 (pdf)), 

Overall, milk consumption seems to decrease from childhood to later in life, with a slight uptick in the later life stage. When looking at females and males separately, though men consume more milk on average than women in each age category most of the time, this clear pattern is not observed when looking at g/kilogram of body weight (i.e. indirectly adjusting for total caloric intake – data not shown). On the other hand, fermented milk/yogurt seems to be on average more consumed by women overall, even after adjusting for body size.

Table 5a: Overview of total (non-fermented) milk intake across EU countries

Table 5b: Overview of total fermented milk/yoghurt intake across EU countries

Table 5c: Overview of total cheese intake across EU countries

Disease burden related to low intake of dairy products

The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2023 study ( GBD 2023 Results tool) estimated that in EU Member States in 2023, diets low in milk were accountable for nearly 380 000 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and over 20 000 avoidable deaths from all causes. In the GBD study, diets low in milk were defined as “average daily consumption (in grams per day) of less than 280-340 grams for males and less than 500-610 grams for females of milk including non-fat, low-fat, and full-fat milk". The definition excludes plant-based alternatives to milk, e.g. based on soy ( GBD 2025 (pdf)). 

Additionally, the GBD 2023 study estimated that in EU Member States, diets low in calcium were accountable for nearly 120 000 DALYs and over 6 000 avoidable deaths from all causes ( GBD 2023 Results tool). In this case, "calcium intake" is defined as average daily consumption of dietary calcium in grams per day from all sources, including milk, yoghurt, and cheese ( GBD 2025 (pdf)).

Of note, the optimal intake differences for males and females are due to the increased risk of prostate cancer with increased consumption of calcium/milk ( GBD 2025 (pdf)).  

The maps below include the deaths and DALYs attributable to diets low in milk in the EU in 2023. 

View map: DALYs and data table

View map: Mortality map and data table

Policy recommendations on the intake of dairy products

In table 6, examples of policy recommendations addressing dairy intake are described. 

Table 6: Policy recommendations to address dairy intake of dairy products

Implemented policies for the promotion of the intake of dairy products

Table 7 presents some of the implemented policies addressing dairy intake. 

Table 7: Implemented policies to address dairy intake

References

Overview of the references to this brief